A. Abbreviations
- Names of Districts or Countries contain no space between letters (D.C., UAE, UK).
- Abbreviating States: Abbreviate states only in tables, references, and on the cover page, and then use the capitalized, two-character style of the S. Postal Service (Alabama=AL, Alaska=AK, etc.).
- Acronyms and abbreviations traditionally written in all capital letters, such as SHA, AAAS, or Texas A&M, contain neither space nor punctuation between letters. The traditional and required exceptions are U.S., U.S.A., D.C. (District of Columbia), B.C.E., C.E., Ph.D., and M.S.
- Measurements: Metric terms (cm, m, km) are not followed by a period, but nonmetric abbreviations are followed by a period (in., ft., mi.).
- Latin Abbreviations: only limited use allowed. Do not use abbreviated Latin terms, such as e.g., e., ibid., op. cit., loc. cit., for narrative text citations or references. The abbreviations f. and ff. and the word “passim” are not used as a substitute for accurate page references. Use of “circa” with dates is allowed, but abbreviate as ca., not c. (ca. 1650). The term “et al.” is allowed to substitute for authors’ names within text citations when there are three or more names (Johnson et al.).
- Number: Abbreviate “number” as “No.” when used with a specific Arabic numeral (Burial No. 7) and in table headings. Do not use the symbol #.
B. Accents and Diacritical Marks
All accents and diacritical marks for English and foreign-language words, proper names, place names, and titles of publications must be included and clearly marked when used in the text or cited in the references. When in doubt, check Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary. Some non-English words, such as “facade,” are spelled without the diacritical mark (cedilla).
Ivor Noël Hume
Aleš Hrdlička
Mehmet Yaşar İşcan
Teotihuacán
Erlenbach-Zürich
Revista de arqueología y etnología (title)
raison d’être
français
entrepôt
C. Capitalization
In English, capitalize all proper names, taxonomic names for genera and higher ranks, names of specific archaeological sites (but not the word “site”), specific geographical areas, and specific titles of buildings or departments. Please capitalize “Indigenous,” “Native,” and “Black,” but not “white,” when used in reference to ethnic/cultural groups. People’s titles are not capitalized unless the title precedes and is used as part of the name. Note that al, like the, is capitalized only at the beginning of a sentence or title. Abu, Abd, ibn, al-, or el- are part of the last name, like Mc, de, von, and van.
- Use lowercase for general geographic, directional, and generic division For further guidelines on capitalization of nonarchaeological terms, see the Chicago Manual of Style, chapter 7.
- Check sources for correct capitalization of prefixes in front of names (van, von, de, ); some are capitalized, some are not. For example, for American authors with compound surnames, such as Van Laer, Van is generally capitalized whether or not another name precedes it (Van Laer, Arnold Van Laer); for names of Dutch authors, van and der are not capitalized when preceded by another name, but Van is capitalized when the surname is used alone (Adriaen van der Donck, Van der Donck; or, in references, Van der Donck, Adriaen; Hans van Regteren Altena; Van Regteren Altena, Hans).
EXAMPLES
American Southwest, southwestern United States, southeastern plantations, Eastern Shore Department of Archaeology, but archaeology department
English composition, archaeology, history
Federal-period architecture (but U.S. federal government) Main Street, Spring Street, but Main and Spring streets
Maya Lowlands, the lowlands
Ohio River, but Ohio and Monongahela rivers, Lakes Superior and Michigan
President Clinton, American president Clinton, the president of the society Raritan formation
Spanish colonial period, contact, precontact, postmedieval Spanish majolica (Puebla Blue/White type)
Stadt Huys block, Yaughan Curriboo site; Zea mays, Dalton point; Level I, level or levels The Society for Historical Archaeology, the society
Washington State, the state of Washington
D. Dates, Years, and Eras
1. Dates
Use scientific or military style for all dates. “He was born on 19 July 1889.” Actual quotations will retain their style.
2. Decades
Do not use apostrophes in decades (1860s and 1870s, not 1860’s and ’70’s.
3. Inclusive Years
Fully cite inclusive years using an en dash, not a hyphen (1774–1778); do not shorten the century (1774–78). Always use “from” with “to” when referring to a range of dates (from 1850 to 1860); do not combine words and symbols (from 1850–1860).
4. Eras
Do not use B.C., A.D., or B.P. (before present); convert these expressions to B.C.E. and C.E. (See below for use of B.P. in radiometric ages.) B.C.E. (before the common era) and C.E. (common era) follow years (2000 C.E., 350 B.C.E., 20 B.C.E.–15 C.E.). There is no year 0. Abbreviate circa as ca. (ca. 1650).
E. Hyphenation
Hyphenation often changes over time, so it is best to consult Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary or the Chicago Manual of Style (2017:7.89) for hyphenation of nonarchaeological compound words. For example, many prefixes no longer call for hyphens (bi, co, inter, micro, macro, over, pre, post, pseudo, re, semi, sub, trans, un, under, etc.). If ambiguity is unlikely and the guide does not require one, do not hyphenate.
1. Adverbs/Adjectives
Do not use a hyphen when an adverb ending in -ly is a modifier (greatly exaggerated outcome). If an adverb does not end in -ly (more finely detailed sherd, much loved pet), you may use a hyphen only to prevent ambiguity (late-blooming teenager, much-loved music). Generally, use a hyphen with compounds using all, full, well, ill, better, best, little, lesser, least, high, low, upper, lower, middle, mid (all-powerful leader, full-scale attack, ill-defined term, lesser-known individual, middle-class family) before a noun, but only to prevent ambiguity after a noun (his family was middle class). Always check the dictionary for permanently combined forms or exceptions to the general rules (midlife crisis, midterm election, mid-Atlantic, transatlantic, Mideast).
2. Associated or Compound Words
Hyphenate compound words that are not permanent combinations (transfer-printed pearlware) or to make associations clear if there is danger of misunderstanding (round-bodied clay vessels, but clay vessels that are round bodied). Many compounds hyphenated before a noun may not need a hyphen when following a noun (the decision-making body; she excelled at decision making).
3. Colors and Numbers
Hyphenate descriptive terms that include a preposition or conjunction before the noun (black-on- black pottery, black-and-white photo), but not after the noun (the photo was black and white). Do not hyphenate a color preceded by the words light or dark: light blue stone, dark red glow. Hyphens may be used for blue-green algae, but not for bluish green algae or coal black paint. Hyphens are omitted when using abbreviations or symbols: 8 × 10 in. photograph or 5 ft. high wall.
4. Time Periods
Hyphenate century when used as a compound adjective: late 19th-century ceramics, early 20th-century ceramics, mid-16th century, but ceramics of the 19th century. Do not hyphenate early and late. With decades, use a hyphen with mid (mid-1950s), but not with early or late (early fifties, late 1920s).
5. Ethnic/Cultural Subgroups
Do not hyphenate American ethnic groupings, even when used as adjectives. For example, use Italian American foodways, not Italian-American foodways; African American colonoware, not African-American colonoware.
F. Italics
1. Foreign Phrases
Do not italicize commonly used foreign phrases and words included in the main listing of Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, 11th edition, including e.g., i.e., et al., per se, in situ, en masse, sans, a priori. Italicize other terms, including terminus post quem (beginning); terminus ante quem (end); words in Native languages, such as mako sica (badlands); and entries in Merriam-Webster’s “Foreign Words & Phrases” chapter.
2. Names of Ships
Italicize names of ships: whaler Alta California, British frigate HMS Orpheus, Union vessel USS Monitor.
3. Biological Taxonomy
Italicize the taxonomic genus, species, and variety of scientific names: humans (Homo sapiens sapiens), white oak (Quercus alba), but oak (Quercus sp.). Other taxa are not italicized.
4. Titles
Italics are reserved for published works only: periodicals, newspapers, books, proceedings and collections, motion pictures, works of art, and pamphlets. Dissertation titles are italicized only if they are published. Manuscripts, reports, lectures, papers read at meetings, Webpages, or other unpublished works are not italicized. Titles of articles within journals are not italicized in references; they are placed in quotation marks only when used in the narrative text. See the Chicago Manual of Style or other reference works when in doubt.
5. Mathematical Variables
Letters signifying mathematical variables are italicized: X (chi), p (probability), df (degrees of freedom).
G. Numbers
In general, Arabic numerals are to be used for all numbers 10 and above (12 sites, 30th test pit). Spell out zero through nine (three sites, ninth month). All numbers in a series and all numbers within one sentence should agree in form. If one reference number within a sentence is 10 or above, the other numbers in the sentence should be in numeral form also (“The sample includes 4 pipe stems, 32 redware sherds, 7 stoneware sherds, 9 bottle-glass shards, and 83 nails”). Use commas with Arabic numerals of 1,000 and above. Spell out any number that begins a sentence (“One hundred visitors per day is not unusual”) or is used in general expressions in narrative text (several hundred years; about one-half of the workers).
1. Centuries
Use 14th century, early 20th century, but spell out century numerals that begin a sentence or that appear in headings and titles of manuscripts (“Replicating Fifteenth- and Sixteenth-Century Ordnance”). In references format will agree with book or article titles as originally published. Do not use superscript in century designations, i.e., 14th century, not 14th century.
2. Legal Land Descriptions (section, range, township)—Sec 12, R9W,
3. Mathematical Copy—(in text) $6 million, (in tables) $6,000,000; n=9; significant at the .10 level; 20%–40%; 100°C (also see section B below).
4. Measurements
Use numerals for precise measurements like 3 ml, 0.4 mm, 4 cm; 0.25 in., 2 in., 5 ft.; 8½ × 11 in.; 5 × 5 ft.; 1/2 mi., 0.5 mi., 5,000 mi., 10,000 mi., 5000 km, 10,000 km; 2 hours; 2,000 hours; 8 P.M.; 90° angle; 32°F, 650°C; 10.5°; or 10° 90′ N.
5. Page Numbers—Seifert (1991:82–108); or “on page 5 of the ” Rather than a hyphen, use an en dash, which means “up to and including,” and do not shorten the numbers for a range of pages: 121–128, not 121–28 or 121–8.
6. Percentage—96.3%; the percentage sign is used only with Arabic
7. References—2nd
8. Series Titles—45th Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology. In references, however, format will agree with title as originally published.
9. Tables
Numerals are paired with symbols and abbreviations: 85%, 3 ft., No. 6 (not #6).
H. Quotations
1. Direct Quotations
Word-for-word quotations are set off by quotation marks. Quotations of fewer than three typed lines or fewer than two full sentences should be placed in the text, set off with quotation marks, followed by the citation in parentheses, and then punctuated. Quotations of three or more typed lines or two full sentences or more should be indented and set off from the body of the text by an extra blank line before and after the quote; no quotation marks set off the block quote from the text. If quotations are contained within a block quote, use full quotation marks (“ ”), not single quotes (‘ ’).
2. Author’s Comments
Use brackets ([ ]), not parentheses, to set off any of your own words within the quote that aid understanding or flow. (Parentheses are reserved for parenthetical material incorporated in the original quote and for citations.) Use brackets to enclose the phrase [emphasis added] to signify recent author-added emphasis and [emphasis in original] to indicate the emphasis was part of the original text. Use the word [sic] in quoted material sparingly to indicate errors in the original text. (Do not use [sic] when an error is obviously a minor typographical error or when archaic English is being quoted.)
As Sullivan (1978:184) stated, archaeologists “must develop a rigorous model that specifies how information about the past is transmitted to the present via material remains [emphasis added].”
“The [wrestling] match was between a very famous man at that time, Joe Tumr [sic] & some man; nobody could beat him [emphasis in original]” (Schmidt 1989:132).
3. Text
Ellipses are used to indicate omitted material in a quotation. They are placed on the line as periods are, not suspended. Do not use software-generated ellipsis symbols. The three ellipsis dots have no spaces between dots. Asterisks should not be used in place of periods. Generally, ellipses are not used at the beginning or end of quoted material. A quotation should proceed from your text. See the Chicago Manual of Style, sections 13.50–54, for details. Here are the types of ellipses:
a. Three periods with spaces before and after are normally used within a sentence to indicate omitted material: “The system … supported these beliefs.”
b. Four periods are used with the first one serving as a period (no space) when one or more sentences are deleted: “This work does … His view was similar.” Note that the next sentence after the four-dot ellipsis begins with a capital letter.
Appropriate punctuation such as (, … ) or (… : ) may proceed or follow ellipses, but only to make the meaning clearer.
4. Inscriptions and Mottoes
Set inscriptions and mottoes off from the surrounding text and neither italicize nor set in quotation marks. Use a colon to initiate an inscription; provide periods for missing letters, brackets for assumed letters, and back slashes to separate original multiple lines of text. The use of uppercase and lowercase letters should reflect the original usage.
EXAMPLES
The label reads: First Class
The inscription on the crock reads: C CROL…MANUF[ACTU]RERN[e]w York.
I. Scientific and Mathematical Copy
1. Chemical Names
Chemical symbols should be capitalized, followed with a subscript figure indicating number of atoms in a molecule (H2O); superscript the mass number in front (14C). Names of chemical compounds should be lowercase when written (carbon, oxygen). See the Chicago Manual of Style 8.149–150 and 10.63 for further discussion.
2. Formulas, Equations, and Statistics
a. Set an equation off from the text by placing it on a line of its own with space above and
Y=1931.75-8.25X
b. Italicize all mathematical variables (letters or other symbols). Certain symbols may be ambiguous to the editorial/printing For example, the editors must differentiate the letter X from the variable (x), a multiplication symbol (×), or the Greek letter chi (Χ), all of which are set differently in print. When degrees of freedom or probability are relevant to statistical analysis, they should be typed following the equation.
Results are statistically significant based on the chi-square test of association: X 2 =52.82, df 4, p <.05.
3. Measurements
a. Specific measurements should be in numerals and abbreviated: 4 cm; 2 in.; 5 ft., 8½ × 11 in.; 5 × 5 ft.; 12 ac.; 0.5 mi.; 2200 km; 2 hours; 2,000 hours; 8 P.M.; 0.25 in.; 50 mi.; 90° angle; 32°F; 650°C; 5°, or 10° 90′ N. The metric unit “liter” is abbreviated L due to potential confusion with the Arabic numeral 1 (8 L, not 8 l). Abbreviations for metric terms (cm, m) are not followed by a period, but nonmetric abbreviations are followed by a period (ft., in.).
b. Alphabetic abbreviations are not repeated with combined measures (5 × 5 ), but symbols are (15%–20%).
c. Precede decimal numbers less than one with a zero (0.4 m, 9 mi.), except when by tradition it is otherwise, such as in statistical probability (p <.05) or firearms and ordnance (.22 cal. shell).
d. Square measurements—To avoid confusing the reader, an excavation unit 5 m on each side will be written as “5 × 5 m” in the text (not as “5 m square”). A multiplication symbol is used, not the letter x. When expressing area, such as 500 square meters, place the exponent after the abbreviation (500 m2).
4. Site numbers
Site numbers, as well as site names, should be included when known. When trinomial-system site numbers are available, type U.S. numbers consistently according to the state’s conventions, or, if inconsistent, site numbers will be reformatted with capital letters for the county designation and without hyphens (36LY160). Type Canadian Borden numbers with one hyphen (DiQw-4).
5. Radiometric Ages
Radiocarbon age determinations are not dates; they represent a statistical probability of being within a specific range of dates. Only calendric and tree-ring dates are absolute. When radiocarbon ages are reported for the first time they are to follow the standardized format of the journals Radiocarbon and American Antiquity (57[4]:755–756). If the radiocarbon age being cited has been previously published elsewhere, citation of that reference (including page numbers) is adequate. In the first citation of a radiocarbon age, provide the radiocarbon age, date, sigma error, laboratory number, sample number, the material of the sample dated, whether the date has been corrected, and the bibliographic reference (if previously published). In subsequent citations, use the age alone. To present a series of radiocarbon ages and associated technical data in tabular form, consult the example given in American Antiquity (57[1]:67, table 2). More specifically, the uncalibrated radiocarbon age given in the first specific citation must be based on the 5,568-year half-life of 14C (divide ages based on the 5,730-year half-life by 1.03). The radiocarbon age is to be presented as years B.P. and not converted to calendric years B.C.E./C.E. The 1-sigma standard error provided by the laboratory should follow. Include the sample- identification and laboratory numbers, and what material was analyzed (sample of charred wood, walnut hulls, etc.). Finally, indicate whether the age has been corrected for isotopic fractionation (if the lab has provided sigma 13C value, then the date has been corrected).
EXAMPLE
The age of UCR-2141 [Goleta rope fiber] was determined to be 120 ± 50 14C years B.P. (L-303) (Stuiver and Polach 1977:355–363); or 120 ± 50 B.P. (L-303; UCR-2141, rope fiber).
6. Tree-Ring Dates
Tree-ring dates should be given as calendric dates (1350 C.E.; 280 B.C.E.; 200 B.C.E.–100 C.E.). Note the spelling of “tree-ring” as established by the profession.
7. Munsell Soil-Color Designations
Place a space between the hue designation and color code when using Munsell soil-color designations, e.g., 10YR 4/5.
J. Spelling
1. Preferred Spelling
American spelling will be used rather than British English or federal government spellings, except in direct quotation and titles of references. When alternate spellings exist for a word, use the version listed first in Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, 11th edition. For words not appearing in this source, consult Webster’s Third New International Dictionary, Unabridged.
The following is a partial list of preferred spellings:
acknowledgments, not acknowledgements
cannot, not can not
catalog, not catalogue
data (plural)=information; datum (singular)=benchmark
database, not data base
datable, not dateable
disk, not disc
e-mail, not email or E-mail
focused, not focussed
gauge, not gage
gray, not grey
hollowware, not holloware
honor, not honour
lifestyle or lifeways, not life-style or life-ways
mindset, not mind set or mind-set
modeled, not modelled
percentage rather than percent is the usual form, but always % with Arabic numerals worldview, not world-view or world view
sociocultural, socioeconomic, sociopolitical (no hyphen)
totaled, not totalled
usable, not useable
x-ray (verb, adjective); X ray (noun)
2. Problematical Words and Phrases
Some troublesome words and phrases encountered in historical archaeology are listed here by the preferred spelling or form:
a. an historic, an historical, an historian, not a historic—traditional use is preferred
b. archaeology, not archeology—the spelling “archeology” is acceptable only in a direct quotation or in acknowledgments, references, or biographies when capitalized as part of a title or an organizational name (Midwest Archeological Center).
c. ethnic groups—African American; African American ceramics (no hyphen); Black American; white American (white not capped); European American, not Euro-American or Euroamerican; Métis; creole (not capped or italicized); Native American (the federal government prefers Native American, but some tribes prefer American Indian, and First Nations is used in Canada). Other is capped when used to refer to “one considered by members of a dominant group as alien, exotic, threatening, or inferior because of different racial, cultural, or sexual ” For example, “the ways of the Other would be considered inferior to dominant cultural patterns.”
d. maker’s mark (one maker, one mark); maker’s marks (one maker, more than one mark); makers’ marks (more than one maker, more than one mark).
e, unfamiliar (or foreign words) may be defined or explained using the format: machicolations, or arched overhangs; hornos arabes, or Moorish kilns; tinajas, or large fermentation jars. Italicize each use of foreign terms throughout the text; unfamiliar words may be italicized on first use.
f. wares—whiteware, yellowware, pearlware, flatware, hollowware, tableware, tea ware; tea and table wares.
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